Despite academic and policy interests on immigrants' credentials, their precise market worth is unclear. This study uses the 1996 Canadian Census microdata to compare the earnings for four groups: Native-born Canadian degree-holders; immigrant Canadian degree-holders; immigrant mixed education degree-holders; and immigrant foreign degree-holders. The findings indicate that immigrants' credentials carry a penalty compared to those of native-born Canadians, and that a foreign degree affects visible-minority immigrants, women and men, more adversely than white Canadians; as well, credential holders' gender and race are also being evaluated. Policies to recognize foreign credentials will bridge some income disparities, but inequality premised upon gender and race will likely remain.

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income distribution educational attainment migrants experience immigrant population